2020
Abstract
Upon becoming the President of the United States in 2016, Donald Trump launched an unprecedented war with the U.S. media. Through his ugly attacks in the last four years, Trump has brought shameful damage to the “Fourth Estate” of the United States and undermined the First Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. Although Trump was voted out of office in 2020, his destruction of the fabrics of American democracy has lasting domestic and international impact.
Fake News, Alternative Facts and “News Confusion”
The coined term “fake news” has become Trump’s scapegoat intended to discredit his adversaries and any dissatisfactory reports regardless of factuality. At the same time, Trump’s intentional misleading of the American public establishes an environment of “news confusion” undermining the integrity of the press and American democracy for that matter.
Prior to the Trump administration, the term “fake news” was not widely used. Since Trump took office, public trust in the media has been continually decreasing. According to a Gallup poll, “Four in 10 U.S. adults say they have “a great deal” (9%) or “a fair amount” (31%) of trust and confidence in the media to report the news “fully, accurately, and fairly,” while six in 10 have “not very much” trust (27%) or “none at all” (33%) (cite).”[1] The lack of trust in the press is largely due to the heightened fears of “fake news,” which put the public at an information disadvantage. The Relationships Between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policyestablishes that the public generally has an information disadvantage. “Fake news” is only furthering this disadvantage.[2] Trump’s assault on the media and his irresponsible tweets are the sole sources of this problem.
Media consumers often receive conflicting information from the political elite and media. Essentially, people do not know who to turn to for the facts., Trump has bad-mouthed the media as ‘the enemy of the people.’ This dangerous narrative has undermined the integrity of the press. Given how important the media is to democracy, “fake news” poses a threat to the American voters. Without freedom of the press, the public would be unable to make informed decisions. They would become less politically involved.[3] More than one in five newspapers have shut down over the past fifteen years. Communities that are without local coverage report a loss of knowledge about important issues, such as climate change. Citizens living in “news deserts” do not have a reliable source of information to base their voting decisions on.[4] Education is an important factor in determining an election. Trump voters are more likely to be uneducated. The lack of education can be related to the lack of news. For that reason, Trump’s attempt to suppress the media is really an attempt to suppress informed voter decisions.[5]
Trump’s intentional misleading of the American public has created an environment of “news confusion.” The irony about “fake news” is Trump has become “fake news” himself. Trump likes to tote “alternative facts,” but facts cannot be alternative. They either are or are not facts. The first 2020 presidential debate between Trump and Biden is a prime example. Throughout the debate, Trump unleashed lie after lie and falsely asserted “alternative fact” after “alternative fact.” His attacks on Hunter Biden were based on a widely circulated conspiracy. Despite objections from the intelligence community, Trump spread the conspiracy as a fact and made his followers accept it as so.[6] When confronted with rebutting information about the alleged scandal, Trump shamelessly continued to bash them as “fake news.” Trump cannot have it both ways. He cannot claim “fake news” while also spreading “alternative facts.”[7] The pairing of the two terms—“fake news” and “alternative facts”—gives Trump and his followers an out when they do not want to hear reports that are counter to their beliefs.
Trump’s Presidential Twitter Fakeout
Trump is anything but traditional. He has violated every presidential norm. His use of Twitter only further enables his unorthodox behavior. Trump makes impactful decisions in seemingly erratic twitter rants which only reach his supporters. Unlike previous presidents who would make important announcements through press releases or conferences to the whole nation. A prime example of Trump’s negligence is the July 26th, 2017 tweet announcing the Transgender Ban in the Military. His three tweets read:
After consultation with my Generals and military experts, please be advised that the United States Government will not accept or allow……….[8]Transgender individuals to serve in any capacity in the U.S. Military. Our military must be focused on decisive and overwhelming………[9] Victory and cannot be burdened with the tremendous medical costs and disruption that transgender in the military would entail. Thank you.[10]
The decision caught the public and more importantly the LGBTQ+ community off guard. White House staffers and the Pentagon were also flabbergasted.[11] Trump’s tweet provided little insight into what measures needed to be enacted to bar transgender individuals from military service and enlistment. The ban itself did not go into fruition until April of 2019, two years after the initial announcement.[12] For the military LGBTQ+ community, they were forced to endure two years questioning the stability of their employment. The transgender ban is only one of many examples of how Trump is transforming official White House announcements.
Trump has declared his use of twitter as “modern day presidential.”[13] In doing so, he has completely abused the power of the presidency. Trump switches back and forth from official and unofficial announcements at will. When he comes under fire, he shamelessly claims he is “joking” or “being sarcastic.” Fundamentally, Trump uses Twitter to “fakeout” whenever convenient for him. A more recent example of Trump’s “modern day presidential” was when he tweeted that all discussion for a COVID-19 stimulus package will be halted until after the election. The October 6, 2020 tweet wrote:
I have instructed my representatives to stop negotiating until after the election
when, immediately after I win, we will pass a major Stimulus Bill that focuses
on hardworking Americans and Small Business.[14]
The tweet was outside the context of an official presidential announcement. Yet Trump intended it to be considered as official. However, Trump later rescinded his tweet and continued negotiations after swift objections from both sides. Some even interpreted the tweet as a threat, saying: “elect me or else.” The rhetoric in the tweet would not have been approved if Trump went through official channels.
Trump’s abusive use of Twitter has set a terrible precedent for government-people communication. Trump’s tweets reach a select audience: his followers. Twitter enables the mobilization of Trump’s base, while also omitting the general public from the conversation. Presidents do not have a singular constituency. Every decision a president makes impacts the whole of America. Twitter excludes non-Trump followers from information about decisions that will impact their lives. Trump’s actions on Twitter are not “modern day presidential” or even presidential at all because they are unilateral and only voiced to his base.
Trump and Fox News: A Codependent Relationship
The War on the Media is not contained just within the Trump administration. It has infected the media itself—namely Fox News. Trump and Fox News have developed a codependent relationship over the past four years. Trump brings in his stock of Trumpians, which increases the Fox’s viewership and profits. While Fox—more specifically, “Fox and Friends”—provides a “blank-check” for Trump to hold quasi-rallies and feed “anti-press” propaganda to his base.[15] Fox is able to maintain their relationship with Trump because they often stroke his ego and promote his agenda. The network rarely challenges his authority. With the exception of journalists like Chris Wallace, Fox News can no longer be considered a credible source. Rather Fox is reminiscent of a state-run media outlet. Fox has even gone so far as to use dictatorial language in reference to Trump. In April of 2019, “Fox & Friends” co-host Brian Kilmeade said: “And he [Trump] will be at the border tomorrow, looking at the beginning of the wall that was built under his rein.”[16] Dictators and authoritarian leaders have a rein, not presidents.
The public has an interest in receiving unframed or in journalistic terms, objective information. This is not always possible due to the fact the media is reliant on the elite for information, which usually comes pre-framed.[17] There are typically two types of frames used in the media: episodic frames which focus on individual stories and thematic frames that address broader social trends or issues. The type of frame used in a news report can dictate how people perceive the importance of an issue. However despite popular belief, the news does not necessarily influence the opinions of the public. The increase in partisan news organizations accounts for the lack of media persuasive power.[18] Essentially journalists frame their stories in a way that would best appeal to their audience. After all, news organizations are privately owned and are foremost a profiting business. In lieu of this profiteering technique, Fox News has taken framing a step further by diverting from all journalistic norms.
Trump and Fox News are married in a sense. Fox New recognizes their reliance on the elite for information, but their idea of the elite is limited to the Trump administration. They have alienated themselves from democrats and moderate republicans.[19] Although now that Trump lost reelection, Fox has to realign themselves. They have to envision a post-Trump world. Fox is attempting to divorce themselves from Trump’s extremism. As a result, Trump has dubbed the outlet as too liberal. He has also threatened a new coupling, one that satiates his egotism: “Trump TV.”[20] Even as Trump exists in the White House, “Trump TV” and his remaining loyalists at Fox endangers the democratic process. Even after the Electoral College officially designated Biden as the President-Elect, Trump has yet to concede and likely will continue to claim wide-spread voter fraud.[21] Fox and potentially “Trump T.V” presents an opportunity for Trump to remain in the public eye as a shadow president. Together they can undermine policies and public trust with his political agenda and connections.
The International War on the Media
International Confusion: The American Paradox
The decisions Trump implements domestically produce a ripple effect internationally. His continual building of press rights barriers has forced the media to change the way in which the news is reported to not only U.S citizens, but to America’s allies as well. In 2019, the White House revoked “hard-passes” in an attempt to control the news media. The new rule required journalists to be present at the White House for 90 days out of a 180 day period, a near impossible condition to meet given the lack of press events in general.[22]
The move is reminiscent of a censorship state. By limiting the number of “hard-passes,” reporters now have to seek permission to attend White House press conferences on a daily basis. This allows the Trump administration to have total agency over press coverage and the angle the news is reported.[23] The revoking of “hard-passes” is not Trump’s first attempt to limit press rights. Jim Acosta of CNN was stripped of his “hard-pass” in 2018 after Trump shut down Acosta’s questioning about immigration during a post-midterm election press conference. While the revoking of “hard-passes” seemingly appears as a domestic issue, there are underlying international repercussions as well. Take for example, Acosta’s removal. The answer to his question would have informed the American public and American allies alike.[24] Trump’s agenda is widely unknown. Aside from his desire to revert to isolationism, it is unclear where his loyalties lie. Especially in regards to Russia. The lack of a clear international agenda invokes a sense of international confusion.
The 2019 revoking of “hard-passes,” is only one of many ways in which Trump has attempted to gag the media.[25] In 2017, Trump met with Russian officials in the Oval Office. The timing of the meeting raised many questions internationally. Prior to the meeting, Trump dismissed claims about Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election. He publicly chose to believe Russian intelligence over the FBI.[26] Moreover, Trump barred the U.S press from attending the event, despite the presence of the Russian state-run media. Additionally, the White House failed to provide a press release.[27] So not only was the public unaware of the conversations that happened during the meeting, American allies were not aware as well. The ambiguity of the meeting only deepened the international confusion. The implications of the meeting made many wonder, even more so, where Trump’s and therefore the United States’, loyalties lie.
Aside from the growing distrust in Trump’s commitment to U.S international allies, the growing international confusion has shaped an American paradox. Trump’s habitual censorship of the media devalues America’s role as the international watchdog. The U.S has long advocated for the rights of the press, but not under the Trump administration. The combined revoking of “hard-passes,” press-threats and barring reporters from important meetings—domestically and internationally—-has sent a mixed message. America cannot stand for the First Amendment, while the president gags those who practice their First Amendment rights.
Under the Trump administration, America has entered a transition phase. In some regards, America still stands for the First Amendment. Hundreds of years of history cannot be overruled in a matter of four years. In some ways the media is growing exponentially in the U.S because of the expansion of social media. Yet, at the same time, the office of the president has halted watchdog responsibilities internationally. Trump even calls to be watched himself because of his detrimental actions. The phenomenon is a paradox unique to America: spontaneously both for and against the press. As a result, American allies are forced into a new position: they now have to navigate America’s vacant watchdog role and essentially watch the watchdog.
Freedom of the Press: Trump’s Authorization Groupies
Trump’s “fake news” rhetoric and war on the media enables authoritarian leaders to introduce dangerous legislation that diminishes journalistic protections internationally. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists—an independent, non-profit organization—532 journalists have been imprisoned in foreign countries between the years 2016 and 2019. Journalistic imprisonment is at an unprecedented high compared to previous years. In the year 2015, the number of imprisoned journalists was limited to a total of 62; however, in 2017 the number plateaued to a resounding 271 imprisonments. The rise in imprisonments correlates with the inauguration of Trump. This is due to authoritarian leaders utilizing the Trumpian mentality.[28]
Far from isolating repressive countries for their authoritarian behavior, the United States, in particular, has cozied up to strongmen such as Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Chinese President Xi Jinping. At the same time, President Donald Trump’s nationalistic rhetoric, fixation on Islamic extremism, and insistence on labeling critical media “fake news” serves to reinforce the framework of accusations and legal charges that allow such leaders to preside over the jailing of journalists.[29]
Trump has provided a free pass to authoritarian countries. He is allowing them to infringe upon press freedoms. From January 2017 through May 2019, at least 26 countries have introduced, if not enacted, laws restricting online media and journalistic access. The countries cited “fake news” as their justification.[30] The Philippines’ congress notably passed the act, Bayanihan to Heal As One Act, in March that provides President Rodrigo Duterte emergency powers to address concerns regarding COVID-19. The act contains a provision that criminalizes the spreading of “false information” about the pandemic (cite).[31] A move that is largely reminiscent of the current state of the media in the United States. On March 18, 2020—six days prior to the passage of the act—Trump tweeted:
I always treated the Chinese Virus very seriously, and have done a very good
job from the beginning, including my very early decision to close the “borders”
from China – against the wishes of almost all. Many lives were saved. The
Fake News new narrative is disgraceful & false![32]
Trump’s domestic actions—despite his aversion to geopolitics—have a rippling effect impacting the international stage. Since World War II, America has been a global power. As an international leader, America is responsible for establishing socio-political norms. The leaders of the world follow those norms by example. When Trump claims “fake news,” it encourages others countries too as well—without fear of consequences. Moreover, Congress’ inability to protect the dwindling rights of the domestic press sends a message to American allies: the rights of the press are no longer a priority. America has told the world advocating for the press is fruitless without the resources and support of the United States. This message accounts for the increase in journalistic imprisonments with seemingly no consequences. Under Trump’s administration, the United States has shaped an environment favorable for international inaction in lieu of the emergence of fake news-authoritarian censorship.
The Future of the Domestic and International Press
Despite Biden’s 2020 election win, the war on the media is not a policy matter that can simply be overturned. Just as freedom of the press was once an American cultural cornerstone, “fake news” is now a defining cultural feature. While Trump’s war on the media was initially only perpetrated by his followers, it is now integrated into the larger Republican party. Many republican members have adopted Trump’s anti-press, anti-free-media rhetoric. The party’s reaction to the 2020 election results highlights their growing embrace of “fake news” as a scapegoat. Republican Senator Josh Hawley wrote on Twitter that “The media do not get to determine who the president is.”[33] Republicans claimed that because the results were announced by the media and therefore the “fake news” media, that the results were somehow invalid. [34] While “fake news” does exist, according to the Republican party, “fake news” equates to unsatisfactory news.
“Fake news” is an American-born phenomenon. The war on the media needs to be addressed domestically before the Biden administration can restore international press rights. While Trump may have coined the term “fake news,” it is only a manifestation of American exceptionalism.
Today, American values and political practices inspire others and serve as the main hope for peace and freedom in the world. No other state has the combination of properties and leadership qualities of America. The United States, because it is exceptional in the world of states, has an obligation to promote freedom in the world.[35]
The belief that America is somehow triumphant to the rest of the world and a model for democracy has opened a void for American insecurity. A byproduct of American exceptionalism. How can Americans be exceptional, if they are becoming increasingly undemocratic? The press highlights the corruption within the American government: the flaws of the Electoral College, the inefficiency of Congress and foreign interference in presidential elections. Like Trump’s ego, Americans—or more specifically, Trumpians and loyal-republicans—cannot handle criticism or information that contradicts their stance. The emergence of “fake news” has created an illusion of perfectionism to those who claim it. The illusion disguises the fragility of American insecurity and democracy. “Fake news” demands a war on the media. In order to advance America’s international agenda and democratic ideals, it is in the interest of the U.S to denounce the war on the media and promote both domestic and international press rights.
Recommendations for the Biden Administration
The Biden administration will be a one-term presidency. Four years is not enough time to undercut the damage Trump’s war on the media has done to American ideals domestically, least of all internationally. However, the international repercussions—confused allies and anti-press mobilization—has yet to be seen in its entirety. Notwithstanding, when the “dust settles” it will be the responsibility of the current president, whether that be Biden or his successor, to directly address the international fallout. In the meantime, the Biden administration needs to pressure Republicans who have encouraged the war against the media to acknowledge the importance of the free press. Doing so would hopefully pressure their constituents to remove “fake news” from their vocabulary. Though, it is unlikely given the behavior of the Republican party and their refusal to support the election results. Additionally, Trump followers are extremist and participate in cult-like behaviors regarding Trump and the news media. In that sense, political pressure alone would not be enough to change Republican and Trumpian attitudes.
Given the reluctance of republicans to remove themselves from the war on the media, it would be in the benefit of American democracy for the Biden administration to pass an executive order condemning the actions of Trump. Including any attacks on the First Amendment. Concurrently, the administration should exert pressure on Congress to pass H.Res.284 otherwise known as “Opposing fake news and alternative facts.” The resolution expresses that it is in the sense of Congress to uphold the rights of the press as established in the Constitution. Specifically, the resolution “urges President Trump to acknowledge his support of the First Amendment and democracy. Additionally, it discourages the issuance by White House officials of fake news and encourages the immediate retraction of inaccuracies.”[36] The combined passage of the resolution and executive order would signal for the domestic reconstruction of the freedom of the press. It would also send a message internationally that the U.S no longer stands for attacks on the press and will swiftly condemn any anti-press actions.[37]
The revitalization of the domestic press presents the possibility of indirect international change; however, indirect action alone will not prevent the deterioration of international press rights. Direct action will be required. Biden needs to divert from Trump’s Jacksonian, “American First” approach to foreign policy. A world-wide free press will enable democratic growth. The U.S has to restore its role as watchdog and allocate additional resources to the U.S Agency for Global Media.[38] The Trump administration has infected the USAGM with the “fake news” rhetoric. The 2018-2022 strategic plan claims that “bad actors flooding media markets with an abundance of false, doctored, or misleading information on a multitude of different platforms.”[39] The report also cited the National Security Strategy (NSS), “Rival actors use propaganda and other means to try to discredit democracy. They advance anti-Western views and spread false information to create divisions among ourselves, our allies, and our partners.”[40] Combating “fake news” internationally is not a priority of America, it is a priority of Trump.
False information and bad agents do exist as outlined in both reports, but the power they hold is minimal and amounts to a non-issue. The media is not an all powerful entity as Trump would like the public and the rest of the world to believe. In actuality, the media has very little persuasive power. The general public typically only subscribes to news organizations that align with their own personal beliefs. Most news reports act as a confirmation bias. Inaccurate information does not present a danger to democratic ideals. It is the war on the media that presents a threat.[41] Studies indicate that in areas that lose their local news organizations have a decrease in votership. Direct attacks on the press is an attack on the democratic process.[42]
The inclusion of “fake news” in the NSS and USAGM strategic plan only encourages authoritarian leaders to integrate press restrictions in their legislation. The USAGM is supposed to protect international press rights. They need to strip their original plan and amend it to include a strategy that combats the criminalization of “fake news.”[43] Journalists make mistakes. There needs to be room for human error or a free press cannot thrive and democracy will fail.
A Call for Normalcy In The White House
Combatting the “fake news” rhetoric and restoring journalistic integrity only accounts for a portion of Trump’s war on the media. The war extends to presidential norms. Trump’s use of Twitter has alienated the majority of the American populace. Largely omitting them from his political agenda. His unilateral use of Twitter is dangerous for American democracy and needs to be rectified immediately. Biden ran his campaign on a promise to restore order; the use of Twitter must be incorporated into his plan in order to reinstate traditional presidential standards.
Trump’s behavior throughout his presidency can only be described as middle-school childish. Rather than focusing on the American people, he spent his time dismantling the media and name-calling his opponents. American politics has been reduced to a contest of who is louder when it should be about who is qualified. Even those within Trump’s own party have a disdain for his behavior. During a 2019 interview with CBS, Oklahoma Senator James Lankford, spoke out against Trump’s standoffish presidential-style.
I said well, I always look for a president who can be a role model. I don’t
think that President Trump as a person is a role model for a lot of different youth, that’s just me personally. I don’t like the way that he tweets, some of the things that he says, his word choices at times are not my word choices. He comes across with more New York City swagger than I do from the Midwest and definitely not the way that I’m raising my kids.[44]
In a separate CBS interview, Georgia’s Lieutenant Governor Republican Geoff Duncan expressed his views on Trump’s actions regarding the 2020 election: “I think America as a whole wants leaders that are inspiring and not condescending.” He continued to say, “I got three boys I’m trying to raise. That’s certainly the message I want to drive home with them each and every day.”[45] In both instances, they cited the importance of a president fit to be a role model. The Biden administration and Congress—while they may disagree about policy issues—agree the office of the president should be a beacon of excellence for future generations.
Once the lame-duck session ends, the Biden administration and Congress need to restore the presidential figure in an official capacity. A call of proper presidential conduct will not guarantee subsequent presidents will not adopt a Trump-like demeanor. Despite Trump’s claims that Twitter is “modern day presidential,” Twitter announcements are simply inappropriate. Both Lankford and Duncan expressed their views about Twitter and the un-presidential nature of the platform. During Duncan’s interview he said, “GOP 2.0 has got to include a better way to message—you know, 280 characters is not a way to message to America.”[46] Twitter is an unfit platform for presidential communication. Whether through congressional action or an executive order, the use of social media as a means of announcing major presidential decisions has to be banned. Twitter is the defining feature of Trump’s presidency. He was able to expand the power of the presidency through his unilateral actions on Twitter and spread misinformation to his base. Congress and the Biden administration must unconditionally ban personal-presidential Twitter accounts if American democratic norms are to be restored.
[1] Megan Brenan, “Americans Remain Distrustful of Mass Media,” Gallup.com (Gallup, November 9, 2020), https://news.gallup.com/poll/321116/americans-remain-distrustful-mass-media.aspx.
[2] Baum, Potter. “The Relationships Between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis.” Annual review of political science 11, no. 1 (June 2008): 39–65.
[3] Baum, Potter. “The Relationships Between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis.” (June 2008): 39–65.
[4]Lara Takenaga, “More Than 1 in 5 U.S. Papers Has Closed. This Is the Result.,” The New York Times (The New York Times, December 21, 2019), https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/21/reader-center/local-news-deserts.html.
[5] natesilver538, “Education, Not Income, Predicted Who Would Vote For Trump,” FiveThirtyEight (FiveThirtyEight, November 22, 2016), https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/education-not-income-predicted-who-would-vote-for-trump/.
[6]Davey Alba, “Debunking 4 Viral Rumors About the Bidens and Ukraine,” The New York Times (The New York Times, October 29, 2019), https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/29/business/media/fact-check-biden-ukraine-burisma-china-hunter.html.
[7]CNN, “Replay: The First 2020 Presidential Debate on CNN,” YouTube (YouTube, September 29, 2020), https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yHFI8TsSKXY.
[8] Donald J. Trump, “After Consultation with My Generals and Military Experts, Please Be Advised That the United States Government Will Not Accept or Allow……,” Twitter (Twitter, July 26, 2017), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/890193981585444864?lang=en.
[9] Donald J. Trump, “….Transgender Individuals to Serve in Any Capacity in the U.S. Military. Our Military Must Be Focused on Decisive and Overwhelming…..,” Twitter (Twitter, July 26, 2017), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/890196164313833472?lang=en.
[10] Donald J. Trump, “….Victory and Cannot Be Burdened with the Tremendous Medical Costs and Disruption That Transgender in the Military Would Entail. Thank You,” Twitter (Twitter, July 26, 2017), https://twitter.com/realDonaldTrump/status/890197095151546369?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E890197095151546369%7Ctwgr%5Eshare_3.
[11] Barbara Starr, Zachary Cohen, and Jim Sciutto, “US Joint Chiefs Blindsided by Trump’s Transgender Ban,” July 27, 2017, https://www.cnn.com/2017/07/27/politics/trump-military-transgender-ban-joint-chiefs/index.html.
[12] Emily Tillett, “Controversial Trump Administration Ban on Transgender Troops Goes into Effect,” CBS News (CBS Interactive, April 12, 2019), https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transgender-military-ban-trump-administration-ban-on-transgender-troops-goes-into-effect/.
[13] Donald J. Trump, “My Use of Social Media Is Not Presidential – It’s MODERN DAY PRESIDENTIAL. Make America Great Again!,” Twitter (Twitter, July 1, 2017), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/881281755017355264?lang=en.
[14] Donald J. Trump, “…Request, and Looking to the Future of Our Country. I Have Instructed My Representatives to Stop Negotiating until after the Election When, Immediately after I Win, We Will Pass a Major Stimulus Bill That Focuses on Hardworking Americans and Small Business. I Have Asked…,” Twitter (Twitter, October 6, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1313551795646541824?lang=en.
[15] Wemple, Erik. President Trump Holds Another Quasi-Rally on “Fox & Friends.” The Washington Post (Online). Washington, D.C: WP Company LLC d/b/a The Washington Post, 2020.
[16] Tommy Christopher and By, “King Trump? Fox & Friends Host Refers to Trump’s Presidency as ‘His Reign’,” Mediaite, April 4, 2019, https://www.mediaite.com/donald-trump/king-trump-fox-friends-host-refers-to-trumps-presidency-as-his-reign/
[17] Baum, Potter. “The Relationships Between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis.” (June 2008): 39–65.
[18] Thomas E. Nelson, Rosalee A. Clawson, and Zoe M. Oxley, “Media Framing of a Civil Liberties Conflict and Its Effect on Tolerance,” American Political Science Review 91, no. 3 (1997): pp. 567-583, https://doi.org/10.2307/2952075.
[19]Baum, Potter. “The Relationships Between Mass Media, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis.” (June 2008): 39–65.
[20] Brian Stelter, “The Trump-Fox News Relationship Is Coming to a Head. Here’s What Might Be Coming Next,” CNN (Cable News Network, November 14, 2020), https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/12/media/fox-news-trump-future/index.html.
[21] David Jackson, “Donald Trump Will Keep Protesting, despite Electoral College Vote for Joe Biden,” USA Today (Gannett Satellite Information Network, December 14, 2020), https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2020/12/14/donald-trump-keep-protesting-despite-electoral-college-vote/6536849002/.
[22] Frank LoMonte, “Reporters Persona Non Grata at White House,” First Amendment Watch, April 29, 2020, https://firstamendmentwatch.org/deep-dive/reporters-persona-non-grata-at-white-house/.
[23] Mathew Ingram, “White House Revokes Press Passes for Dozens of Journalists,” Columbia Journalism Review, May 9, 2019, https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/white-house-press-passes.php.
[24] LoMonte, “Reporters Persona Non Grata at White House,” April 29, 2020, https://firstamendmentwatch.org/deep-dive/reporters-persona-non-grata-at-white-house/.
[25] Ibid.
[26] David E. Sanger and Neil Macfarquhar, “With Awkward Timing, Trump Meets Top Russian Official,” The New York Times (The New York Times, May 10, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/10/world/europe/trump-russia-foreign-minister-sergey-lavrov-meeting.html.
[27] Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “Trump Bars U.S. Press, but Not Russia’s, at Meeting With Russian Officials,” The New York Times (The New York Times, May 11, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/10/us/politics/trump-russia-meeting-american-reporters-blocked.html.
[28] “Defending Journalists Worldwide.,” Committee to Protect Journalists, accessed September 2020, https://cpj.org/data/imprisoned/2019/?status=Imprisoned.
[29] Elana Beiser, “Record Number of Journalists Jailed as Turkey, China, Egypt Pay Scant Price for Repression,” Committee to Protect Journalists, December 13, 2020, https://cpj.org/reports/2017/12/journalists-prison-jail-record-number-turkey-china-egypt/.
[30] “The Trump Administration and the Media,” Committee to Protect Journalists, April 16, 2020, https://cpj.org/reports/2020/04/trump-media-attacks-credibility-leaks/.
[31] “Philippines COVID-19 State of Emergency Includes Prison Time for Spreading ‘False News’,” Committee to Protect Journalists, March 27, 2020, https://cpj.org/2020/03/philippines-covid-19-state-of-emergency-includes-p/.
[32] Donald J. Trump, “I Always Treated the Chinese Virus Very Seriously, and Have Done a Very Good Job from the Beginning, Including My Very Early Decision to Close the ‘Borders’ from China – against the Wishes of Almost All. Many Lives Were Saved. The Fake News New Narrative Is Disgraceful & False!,” Twitter (Twitter, March 18, 2020), https://twitter.com/realdonaldtrump/status/1240243188708839424?lang=en.
[33] Farhi, Izadi. “Biden’s Victory Seemed Clear for More Than a Day. So Why Did the Media Hold Off on Calling It?” The Washington Post. Washington, D.C: The Washington Post, November 7, 2020.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Holsti, K. “Exceptionalism in American Foreign Policy: Is It Exceptional?” European journal of international relations 17, no. 3 (September 2011): 382.
[36] Adriano Espaillat, “H.Res.284 – 116th Congress (2019-2020): Opposing Fake News and Alternative Facts.,” Congress.gov, May 3, 2019, https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-resolution/284?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%5B%22Opposing+Fake+News+and+Alternative+Facts%22%5D%7D.
[37] Ibid.
[38] “United States Agency for Global Media,” USAGM, accessed December 2020, https://www.usagm.gov/who-we-are/mission/.
[39] “BBC Strategic Plan 2018-2022 Information Matters: Impact and Agility in U.S. International Media,” Broadcasting Board of Governors (U.S. Agency for Global Media), accessed 2020, https://www.usagm.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/BBG-Strategic-Plan-2018-2022_FINAL.pdf, 9.
[40] Ibid., 1.
[41] Nyhan, Brendan. “Facts and Myths About Misperceptions.” The Journal of economic perspectives 34, no. 3 (July 1, 2020): 220–236.
[42] Josh Stearns, “How We Know Journalism Is Good for Democracy,” Medium (Office of Citizen, December 1, 2020), https://medium.com/office-of-citizen/how-we-know-journalism-is-good-for-democracy-9125e5c995fb.
[43] “United States Agency for Global Media,” USAGM, accessed December 2020, https://www.usagm.gov/who-we-are/mission/.
[44] “Transcript: Chris Coons and James Lankford on ‘Face the Nation,” December 29, 2019,” CBS News (CBS Interactive, December 29, 2019), https://www.cbsnews.com/news/transcript-chris-coons-and-james-lankford-on-face-the-nation/.
[45] “Watch CBS This Morning: Georgia Lieutenant Governor on Election – Full Show on CBS All Access,” CBS, 2020, https://www.cbs.com/shows/cbs_this_morning/video/6rlMPkUQYmBNSzCc7GYsKG8X_JDUXqiE/georgia-lieutenant-governor-on-president-trump-s-attempts-to-overturn-election-results/.
[46] “Watch CBS This Morning: Georgia Lieutenant Governor on Election – Full Show on CBS All Access,” CBS, 2020, https://www.cbs.com/shows/cbs_this_morning/video/6rlMPkUQYmBNSzCc7GYsKG8X_JDUXqiE/georgia-lieutenant-governor-on-president-trump-s-attempts-to-overturn-election-results/.
By Olivia Bridges 